Science 1966;153:206-8. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1938;128:533-9. Wallace CS, Withers GS, George VM, Clayton OF, Greenough WT. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. Braun et al. 97. 3. Nature 1996;383:163-6. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. From a very weak inhibition in early infancy, it goes up rapidly up to 15 years of age, evolving asymptotically from this period on. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. 36. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1990;76:388-99. Roffwarg et al. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. They found that during the desynchronized phase there occur eye movements, the reason why such phase has been given the name of REM-sleep (14). Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). The lag between tachycardia and eye movements may be related to all the neural processes that are involved in the phases preceding adn succeeding the oniric behavior, including the very identification of the dream content. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. Since evoking visual reminiscences during wakefulness and the building up of dreams with visual information are dependent on the visual cortex, both facts can be correlated. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. Pompeiano O. It is not known why and how the potent inhibition of motoneurons is bypassed by the descending impulses that cause such movements but this is, possibly, a key phenomenon for the understanding of the mechanisms and the function of dreams. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. 96. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. 16. 77. It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. Nofzinger EA, Mintun MA, Wiseman MB, Kupfer DJ, Moore Ry. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). Thomas J, Benoit O. Individualisation d'un sommeil ondes lentes et activit phasique. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. Recall of dreams is much greater and the report is much more detailed when one is awakened during desynchronized sleep and the stage I of synchronized sleep, right after alpha waves disappear and are replaced by a lower frequency and lower voltage electro-oscillographic pattern (22,23). Moruzzi G. Active processes in the brain stem during sleep. Dreams and Nightmares in Patients With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Review. The eye movements that occur during desynchronized sleep are equivalent to limb and face twitches occurring during the same phase of sleep and seem to have the same functional meaning. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). 105. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. 75. Aristotle. No PGO potentials have been found in rats (70). Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. As commented upon concerning visual movements, the span of rostrum movements does probably reflect the distance of the olfactory source. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. Aserinsky E, Kleitman N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. J Physiol (Paris) 1984;79:365-74. (ed. 117. Physiol., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york 1972:1-165. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Arch Ital Biol 1963;101:648-68. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. On Sleep and Dreams. 50. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). 22. 116. Magoun HW, Rhines R. An inhibitory mechanism in the bulbar reticular formation. 132. General Learning Press, 1970. In both instances sleep evolved according to the phases of synchronized and then of desynchronized sleep, during which eye movements always occurred. Learn Mem 1999;6:500-8. Epub 2010 Nov 12. J Neurosci 1995;15:3500-8. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. Modifications of recurrent discharge of the alpha motoneurons during sleep. 106. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". 29. Candia et al. According to Mancia (1995), the brain "produces dreams" as "a symbolic process of elaborating, interpreting and reorganizing in narrative sequences all the material accumulated in the memory during waking hours". Although such movements are not always obviously compatible with the dream content (27), as should be expected (see below), as a rule they can be related to the dreams. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. Such important discoveries were buried by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins' work was published. Control of ventilation during sleep. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. cognitive development. J Neurophysiol 1966;29:871-87. 8600 Rockville Pike It has, however, been utilized with a great success in sleep studies. The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. Analysis of psychological theories concerning functions of dreams. The earliest theory to emerge, Freuds psychoanalytic theory, takes an observational approach to identifying the function that dreams serve. Freud theorized that dreams are the result of unfulfilled wishes or desires in the subjects life. An analysis of the supraspinal influences acting on motoneurons during sleep in the unrestrained cat. Vertes RP. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". Miyauchi S, Takino R, Fukuda H, Torii S. Electrophysiological evidence for dreaming. Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. Electroencerph Clin Neurophysiol 1964;17:617-29. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. Eye movements in humans predominate because vision is our main sensory channel and our visual memory is overwhelmingly predominant, resulting in preponderance of visual dreams. 41. Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. the apparitions. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1955:673-690. In humans, both reflex activities are also deeply inhibited during desynchronized sleep. Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. Such patterns mimic oniric eye movements, which may occur in functional coincidence or not with the visual scenes that are dreamed of. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1996;42:123-7. Recently, theta waves frequency were proved in our Laboratory to be linearly related to intelligence in rats, as evaluated by the time necessary to learn operant conditioning tasks (77). 81. Arch Ital Biol 1962;100:216-22. Brain Mechanism and Perceptual Awareness. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. In some animals, however, a reduction of heart rate and respiration may occur, what also happens during an attentive wakefulness if they are threatened. (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. However, during desynchronized sleep it was drastically reduced, being entirely inhibited for most of the time. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. 108. 68. As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. Deprivation of desynchronized sleep during early development not only retards brain maturation but also inhibits the growth response to the brain environmental stimulation later in life (113). PMC J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. He properly related such dreams to his concern with that important war. 4. Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. Sleeping and Waking. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Careers. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. 128. Human cerebral potentials associated with rapid eye movements during REM sleep. Lesion of the alpha coeruleus nucleus impairs the tonic motor inhibition; lesion of the pedunculo-pontine tegmental nucleus impairs the phasic motor inhibition (58,59). In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). 110. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. (eds.) Webanalyzing dreams. The waking level of aminergic modulation falls to 50% during synchronized sleep and to nearly zero in desynchronized sleep (121,122). 86. 72. physiological function. Different effects of several brain areas may affect dreaming in different ways. Physiol Rev 1967;47:117-77. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). Hernndez-Pen R, Ibarra GC, Morgane PJ, Timo-Iaria C. Limbic cholinergic pathways involved in sleep and emotional behavior. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. 3. Desynchronized sleep can be provoked by carbachol infusion in the pontine reticular formation (94). Possible role for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and AP2. Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. Ribeiro S, Goyal V, Mello CV, Pavlides C. Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. Pompeiano and his group produced important knowledge in this field (41,42), showing that the muscle contractions that produce the motor component of oniric behaviors, such as eye and limb movements, need that the pontine gigantocellularis nucleus be intact and activated. WebThe language of dreaming shows that certain parts of the brain are active during dreams while others are inactive. During the second century of the present era, Galen, a Greek physician who practiced Medicine in Rome and was a great anatomist and clinician, knew that temperature, heart rate and respiration exhibited cyclic changes at night, which he attributed to dreaming (3). In: M. C. Hepp-Reymond & G. Marini (eds.) Rerum Natura, I et II. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. Chase MH, Morales FR. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). Axons from neurons of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis descend along the ventral and ventrolateral funiculi and connect with inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord (55,56). In: Pompeiano, O. WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. 20. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. In some mammals only one hemisphere at a time may be in desynchronized sleep. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Essential manifestations of dreaming are the conscious experience, the electrophysiological, the motor and the vegetative expression of oniric behaviors in humans as well as in other animals. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. Arch Gen Psychiat 1966;14:238-48. Those that are specific to certain behaviors. Jouvet and colleagues (1959) soon identified the same phase in cats, naming it paradoxical sleep, inasmuch as the electrophysiological main pattern of this phase in humans resembles that of attentive wakefulness (15). An inhibitory mechanism in the subjects life reflect the distance of the.. Spikes in rats specific behavior, that is, the standing posture role for the transcription factor,... Manifestation of dreaming shows that certain parts of the tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized,... Rem ) sleep for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and several advanced., Benoit O. 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